Rules of Three

People have been utilizing fire for thousands of years; only recently has it become so easy to light and manage a fire that a person—with no firecraft skills whatsoever—can enjoy a quiet evening fire safely and easily. The use of fire is still a respected trait, and most people are curious about the “craft” of fire making. One of the first questions we get on the subject is typically “Can I learn more about that?”

Whether you are new or experienced about fires, it helps to review some basics. Many of the basics, curiously enough, can be quickly broken down into “rules of threes,” or groups of three simple ideas. Just remembering this can be essential in an emergency, but they can also be helpful when trying to learn more. Enjoy.

The following does not consitute a course in firecraft; there are many other techniques, precautions, methods, and materials not presented here that can prove essential to a basic understanding of this module. While this essay can be used to broaden your appreciation of firecraft, it should not be confused with a how-to description of fire making and safety.

3 Things A Fire Needs

1. Air. Fires burn because of the oxygen in our atmosphere. Reduce the air flow, and the fire goes out. Increase the air supply, and fires can burn to thousands of degrees.
2. Heat. Fires not only produce heat, they sustain themselves with it. Reduce the molecular temperature of a fire, and the fire actually goes out.
3. Material. Something needs to feed the fire: this can be wood, paper, animal fat, wax, or any other flammable substance.

3 Types of Fire

1. Survival. In a survival situation, fire is a critical tool. Even if you don’t need the warmth and light of a fire, simply getting one started is a major morale boost. If you can start and keep a fire burning, you can survive indefinitely.
2. Cooking. With a fire, you can cook meat. Like any skill, cooking skills are learned, and can improve with time and experience. Knowing how fires work is a big step: even a casual weekend griller will improve knowing how certain temperatures cook certain meats and vegetables certain ways.
3. Signal. A signal fire is a special type of fire designed to produce a lot of light and smoke quickly. These days, of course, your need to signal by fire is effectively a survival issue as opposed to communications. However, it is a basic type of fire that can save many lives.

3 Types of Combustion

1. Flash. Material which produces significant flame and heat and burns up in seconds (dry weeds), exhausting itself. This type of combustion is high speed, high heat: it can be used to clear up yard waste or scrap very quickly with minimal smoke and mess. Knowing how to start and control a flash fire can make short work of many tasks.
2. Cyclic. A fire which builds slowly, evolves into a strong, steady fire, and then begins to burn down unless fuel is added (a campfire or outdoor cooking fire). This is the most common type of fire, and serves the most tasks.
3. Smolder. A cool fire that produces smoke but little flame; it tends to burn for a long time. An improperly extinguished or ignited fire can smolder for hours; it may not exhaust itself, but may trigger one of the other two fires when conditions are right. This is why it is essential to avoid smoldering fires unless this type is necessary (for smoking or curing meats, or slow-cooking).

3 Types of Material

1. Tinder. This is any dry material that catches fire very quickly, even off a spark. Its purpose is to ignite the kindling. It can consist of dried grasses, sawdust, bark shavings, or even flammable liquid. Knowing how to identify or make tinder is essential in any type of firecraft.
2. Kindling. This consists of small sticks, twigs, or progressively larger materials. Its purposes is to build up enough heat to ignite the fuel. If you’ve watched someone try several times to get a fire going—with the fire simply going out after a minute or two—it’s because they did not apply proper kindling.
3. Fuel. This consists of the largest combustible materials you can find, starting from smallest to largest. It provides the real warmth and light, but is the hardest to ignite. Tinder lights the kindling, and the kindling lights the fuel. Once the fuel is ignited, it should only be a matter of adding more fuel to sustain a fire indefinitely.

3 Ways to Ignite Tinder

1. Spark. Magnesium, flint, a battery, or by the sun (a magnifying glass): the idea is to create a localized point of intense heat that can ignite the tinder. There are many ways to spark a fire. Knowing even a few can save many lives.
2. Friction. A bow drill, saw, or fire plough uses molecular friction to generate heat high enough to create a glowing ember. Although it takes many minutes to start a fire through friction, it is the simplest method to use, and the only method when you have little or no fire-starting materials.
3. Chemical. Matches, common chemical reactions, acids, and so forth can create enough heat to ignite the tinder. These are generally the easiest to use, but are the most expensive and least-likely to have on hand in an emergency. Some methods (such as matches) may be dangerously unreliable under certain conditions.

3 Ways to Ignite Kindling

1. Side/Linear. The tinder and kindling are placed side by side; when the tinder ignites, it heats and burns the kindling next to it. This is useful for high winds or rain, where there is limited protection from the environment. This also requires the most area for your fire, since each section feeds the next in a long daisy-chain.
2. Above. Place the kindling above the tinder. A tall flame will begin to blacken and then burn the underside of the kindling and eventually ignite it. This best utilizes whatever heat comes off the tinder, so be certain to give the tinder sufficient air.
3. Below. The tinder is placed loosely on top of the tinder. This is the least efficient method, unless the tinder is a liquid or gel chemical that catches fire quickly and can be spread easily. With dry tinder, it may be necessary to use this method when the ground is very wet, snowy, or icy below the kindling—this keeps the delicate tinder off the damp ground.

3 Ways to Feed Fuel

1. Cone. Prop the fuel against itself in a cone-shape, with the tinder and kindling inside the base of the cone. This is often called a tepee fire for its obvious resemblance. Although it protects the tinder and kindling quite a bit from wind, the cone is most likely to collapse and fall over into a disorganized pile. However, as the first cone builds, you can easily feed larger pieces of fuel to build up the fire, or use the same-sized pieces to sustain a small fire over a long period.
2. Lean. Take the largest, flattest piece of fuel and stand it on end. Lean one end of the longest, straightest piece of fuel you have against the end of the first piece, forming a right triangle with the ground...like building a narrow ramp. Place the tinder and kindling below this (where the angled stick meets the ground), and then lean the rest of the fuel against the angled piece, ideally using smaller pieces by the kindling, progressing to the largest pieces at the vertical end of your ramp. This provides a self-fueling fire that will feed more fuel progressively as it burns. However, this type of fire is prone to collapsing as the angled piece (the “spine” or “backbone”) burns. Note that self-fueling does not mean self-managed: because your fire can collapse and extinguish itself, you must watch this carefully.
3. Stack. Place six of the largest pieces and lay them side by side (North to South). Take the next six largest pieces and place them across the first six (East to West). Repeat this process, working to your smallest pieces. Eventually, you will have built a fairly large stack of wood, log-house style. The top of the stack should be a reasonably flat platform, on which you can place your kindling and tinder. The idea is that this fire burns down, becoming progressively larger as the fire feeds on the larger logs below. This type of fire is ideal for signal fires, as you can get a very large bonfire burning quickly.

3 Ways to Extinguish a Fire

1. Water. Never douse a fire with water, as a massive steam cloud can erupt, scalding you. Additionally, cold water on hot wood can cause burning fragments to shoot out of the fire. Instead, gradually add water to the fire in sections, evenly, until the fuel turns cherry red. Repeat this process, turning the wood with a stick, until the fire is saturated and all smoke stops. Stir the coals and ensure nothing begins to smoke or steam. This works by cooling the fire (eliminating heat).
2. Sand. Dirt or sand can be poured on a fire, provided the material doesn’t contain anything that can burn or explode. The idea is to smother the fire (eliminating air).
3. Separation. If the fire is small, break up the remaining coals carefully with a stick or axe. Stir the remains to ensure that no large pieces are hiding under the ash. Repeat this process as necessary. The idea is to exhaust the fuel (eliminating material).

3 Clues to Your Fire’s Health

1. A red and darkening fire means you need to add more fuel; you have about 30 minutes of fire left.
2. Smoke but few flames means your fire isn’t generating enough heat. Your fire is either going out, or if you are lighting one, your tinder is not igniting.
3. White ash piling up at the base of the coals means your fire isn’t getting enough air. Stir your fire, or begin to restack it with new fuel.

3 Tips About Threes

1. Gather three times the fuel you need. Fires burn faster than most people believe, and once it gets going, you won’t enjoy walking into the darkness and cold to find more wood.
2. A fire burns three times higher than you see. A two-foot-high flame can ignite materials six feet away or above. Be careful when you select a location to build a fire. When building a fire, remember to check the ground, the surroundings, and the air. Build a fire on grass or a root system, and your fire can spread out of control. Build it on wet ground, and it may not light. Build it to close to your surroundings (a tree, a tent, your fuel, a shelter, or your food) and you could lose them as they burn. And watch out for branches above you, which can also ignite.
3. A fire that singes your palm in less than three seconds is ready for cooking.

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